China

pp-move-indef}} |s |pZhōngguó |wChung¹-kuo²
|jzung¹ gwok³ |pojTiong-kok |hChûng-koet |bucDṳ̆ng-guók |wuutson^平 koh^入 }} China is seen variously as an ancient civilization extending over a large area in East Asia a nation and/or a multinational state entity. China is one of the worlds oldest civilizations and is regarded as the oldest continuous civilization.Jervis, Nancy. http://www.emsc.nysed.gov/ciai/socst/grade3/whatisa.html What Is a Culture ?]lt;/ref> Prior to the 19th century, it possessed one of the most advanced societies and economies in the world; but through successive dynasties it then missed the industrial revolution and began to decline.http://afe.easia.columbia.edu/song/ The Song Dynasty in China. Columbia University.]lt;/ref> In the 19th and 20th century, imperialism internal weakness and civil war damaged the country and its economy, and led to the overthrow of imperial rule. In 1949, after major combat ended in the Chinese Civil War Two Chinas calling themselves "China" emerged: * The [[Peoples Republic of China]] (PRC), established in 1949, commonly known as China has control over mainland China and the largely self-governing territories of Hong Kong (since 1997) and Macau (since 1999). * The [[Republic of China]] (ROC) established in 1912 in mainland China, now commonly known as Taiwan has control over the islands of Taiwan Penghu Kinmen and Matsu Islands In the 1950s, change to economic policies in Taiwan transformed the island into a technology-oriented industrialized developed economy after a period of high growth rates and rapid industrialization. In mainland China, in the 1970s, reforms known as the Four Modernizations modernized the agriculture, industry, technology and defense, vastly raising living standards and making the PRC one of the great powers https://www.cia.gov/library/publications/the-world-factbook/geos/ch.html CIA – The World Factbook– China. Accessed November 26, 2009.]lt;/ref>lt;/ref> Historically, Chinas Culture of China has extended across East Asia as a whole, with Chinese religion customs and writing systems being adopted to varying degrees by neighbors such as Japan Korea and Vietnam Through its history, China was the source of List of Chinese inventions Haggett, Peter. 2001] (2001). Encyclopedia of World Geography Volume 23. Edition 2, illustrated. Marshall Cavendish publishing. ISBN 0761472894, 9780761472896. p 37. p 2836. It has also one of the worlds oldest Chinese writing system The first evidence of human presence in the region was found at the Zhoukoudian cave. It is one of the earliest known specimens of [[Homo erectus]] now commonly known as the Peking Man estimated to have lived from 300,000 to 780,000 years ago.lt;/ref>lt;/ref>lt;/ref>

Etymology

Image:Tradsimpzhongguo.png (top) and Simplified Chinese (bottom) characters for "China" in Chinese language The first character means "middle" or "center", and the second character means "country".]]

English names

The word "China"The first recorded use of the word "China" in English is found in Decades of the New World(1555) by Richard Eden is derived from Cin(چین), a Persian name for China popularized in Europe by Marco Polo "http://www.etymonline.com/index.php?termchina China]", Online Etymology Dictionarylt;/ref>Wood, Francis, Did Marco Polo go to China(1995), p. 61. In early usage, "Chinese ceramics as a term for porcelain was spelled differently from the name of the country, the two words being derived from separate Persian words."http://dictionary.reference.com/browse/China?qsrc2888 china]", The American Heritage Dictionary of the English Language,Boston and New York, Houghton-Mifflin, 2000. Both these words are derived from the Sanskrit word [[Chinas|Cīna]](चीन), used as a name for China as early as AD 150.Found in Book 2 of Kautilya s [[Arthashastra]] (Denis Crispin Twitchett, Michael Loewe, John King Fairbank, The Chin and Han Empires 221 B.C.-A.D. 220, p. 20.) The origin of this word is the subject of several conflicting scholarly theories.Wade, Geoff, "The Polity of Yelang and the Origin of the Name China", Sino-Platonic Papers No. 188, May 2009, pp. 6ff. The traditional theory, proposed in the 17th century by Martin Martini is that the word is derived from "Qin" (秦 Chin(778 BC – 207 BC), the westernmost of the Chinese kingdoms during the Zhou dynasty or from the succeeding Qin dynasty (221 – 206 BC).Martino, Martin, Novus Atlas Sinensis Vienna 1655, Preface, p. 2. In the Hindu scriptures [[China in the Mahābhārata|Mahābhārata]](5th century BC )Liu, Lydia He, The clash of empires p. 77. and [[Laws of Manu]](2nd century BC), the Sanskrit word Cīna(चीन) is used to refer to a country of "yellow-colored" barbarians located in the Tibeto-Burman borderlands east of India Wade, p. 20. The inhabitants of Yelang an ancient kingdom in what is now Guizhou referred to themselves as Zina, and may be the source of the Sanskrit word Cīna.

Chinese names

The official name of China changed with each dynasty the imperial governments referred to themselves as the Empire of the Great Qing Empire of the Great Ming etc. However, the common name remained as Zhōngguó( through dynastic changes. This translates traditionally as "Middle Kingdom," or as "central country." The name Zhōngguófirst appeared in the [[Classic of History]](6th century BC), and was used to refer to the late Zhou Dynasty as they believed that they were the "center of civilization,"《尚書•梓材》:「皇天既付中國民越厥疆土于先王」Roughly translated as "The Heavens awarded the lands and peoples of Zhōngguóto our ancestors". while peoples in the four cardinals were called Dongyi Nanman Xirong and Beidi respectively. Some texts imply that "Zhōngguó" was originally meant to refer to the capital of the sovereign, to differ from the capital of his vassals.《毛亨·傳》：「中國，京師也」 Roughly translated as "Zhōngguó, the capital." The use of "Zhōngguó"implied a claim of political legitimacy, and "Zhōngguó"was often used by states who saw themselves as the sole legitimate successor to previous Chinese dynasties; for example, in the era of the Southern Song Dynasty both the Jin Dynasty (1115–1234) and the Southern Song state claimed to be "Zhōngguó."lt;ref groupnb>See Quansongwen (8,345 chapters), 2005. Historic texts written in the period of Southern Song refer to the Jin Dynasty as "barbarians", while Jin texts portray the Song as "Manzi."Official historic texts such as Songshi, which is written after the period, are more neutral. Zhōngguócame to official use as an abbreviation for the Republic of China (Zhonghua Minguo after the governments establishment in 1912. Since the People's Republic of China established in 1949, now controls the great majority of the area encompassed within the traditional concept of "China", the Peoples Republic is the political unit most commonly identified with the abbreviated name Zhōngguó with the Republic of China nowadays known commonly as "Taiwan .The official name of the Republic of China in traditional Chinese is "中華民國", "中华民国" in simplified Chinese. The official name of the PRC in simplified Chinese is "中华人民共和国", "中華人民共和國" in traditional Chinese. Zhōngguóare the first and last characters of both of these official names. Although in both of these contexts, the name does not contain the exact phrasing of "Zhōngguó," it is expressed in the similar phrase "Zhonghua," while the PRCs official abbreviation is "中国."

History

Ancient China was one of the earliest centers of human civilization. Chinese civilization was also one of the few to invent history of writing the others being Mesopotamia the Indus Valley civilization the Maya civilization and other Mesoamerican civilizations, the Minoan civilization of ancient Greece and Ancient Egypt Gernet, Jacques. 1996] (1996). A history of Chinese civilization Edition 2, illustrated. Cambridge University Press. ISBN 0521497817, 9780521497817. p 40.

Prehistory

Archaeological evidence suggests that the earliest Hominidae in China date from 250,000 to 2.24 million years ago.http://www.archaeology.org/0001/newsbriefs/china.html "Early Homo erectus Tools in China"] by http://www.archaeological.org/ Archaeological Institute of America]http://www.chineseprehistory.org/table.htm List of Chinese fossil hominids] at http://www.chineseprehistory.org/ ChinesePrehistory.org] A cave in Zhoukoudian (near present-day Beijing has fossils dated at somewhere between 300,000 to 780,000 years. The fossils are of Peking Man an example of [[Homo erectus]]who used fire The earliest evidence of a fully modern human in China comes from List of administrative divisions of Guangxi Guangxi where a cranium has been found and dated at approximately 67,000 years old. Although much controversy persists over the dating of the Liujiang remains,lt;/ref>lt;/ref> a partial skeleton from Minatogawa in Okinawa Japan has been dated to 16,600 to 18,250 years old, so modern humans probably reached China before that time.

Dynastic rule

image:Jade deer.jpg deer ornament made during the first historic Chinese dynasty, the Shang Dynasty 17th to 11th Century BC.]] Chinese tradition names the first dynasty Xia Dynasty but it was considered mythical until scientific excavations found early bronze-age sites at Erlitou culture in Henan Province in 1959.http://www.nga.gov/exhibitions/chbro_bron.shtm "Bronze Age China"] by http://www.nga.gov/ National Gallery of Art] Archaeologists have since uncovered urban sites, bronze implements, and tombs in locations cited as Xias in ancient historical texts, but it is impossible to verify that these remains are of the Xia without written records from the period. Image:Terracotta pmorgan.jpg of the Qin Dynasty ca. 210 BC.]] The first Chinese dynasty that left historical records, the loosely feudal Shang Dynasty (Yin), settled along the Yellow River in eastern China from the 17th to the 11th century BC. The Oracle bone script of the Shang Dynasty represent the oldest forms of Chinese writing found and the direct ancestor of modern Chinese characters used throughout East Asia. The Shang were invaded from the west by the Zhou dynasty who ruled from the 12th to the 5th century BC, until their centralized authority was slowly eroded by feudal warlords. Many independent states eventually emerged out of the weakened Zhou state, and continually waged war with each other in the Spring and Autumn period only occasionally deferring to the Zhou king. By the time of the Warring States period there were seven powerful sovereign states, each with its own king, ministry and army. The first unified Chinese state was established by Qin Shi Huang of the Qin state in 221 BC, who proclaimed himself as the "First Emperor" and created many reforms in the Empire, notably the forced standardization of the Chinese language and measurements. The Qin Dynasty lasted only fifteen years, as its harsh Legalism (philosophy) and authoritarian policies soon led to widespread rebellion. The subsequent Han Dynasty ruled China between 206 BC and 220 AD, and created a lasting Han Chinese among its populace that extends to the present day. The Han Dynasty History of the Han Dynasty with military campaigns reaching Korea Vietnam Mongolia and Central Asia and also helped establish the Silk Road in Central Asia. End of the Han Dynasty another period of disunion followed, including the highly chivalric period of the Three Kingdoms Independent Chinese states of this period such as Wu Kingdom opened diplomatic relations with Japan, introducing the Chinese writing system there. In 580 AD, China was reunited under the Sui Dynasty However, the Sui Dynasty was short-lived after a failure in the Goguryeo-Sui Wars (598–614) weakened it. Image:Porcelaine chinoise Guimet 241101.jpg celadon porcelain pieces from Zhejiang province, during the Song Dynasty ]] Under the succeeding Tang Dynasty and Song Dynasty dynasties, Chinese technology and culture reached its zenith. The Tang Empire was at its height of power until the middle of the 8th century, when the An Shi Rebellion destroyed the prosperity of the empire. The Song dynasty was the first government in world history to issue paper money and the first Chinese polity to establish a permanent standing navy. Between the 10th and 11th centuries, the population of China doubled in size. This growth came about through expanded rice cultivation in central and southern China, and the production of abundant food surpluses. Within its borders, the Northern Song Dynasty had a population of some 100 million people. The Song Dynasty was a culturally rich period for philosophy and the arts. Landscape art and portrait painting were brought to new levels of maturity and complexity after the Tang Dynasty, and social elites gathered to view art, share their own, and trade precious artworks. Philosopher such as Cheng Yi (philosopher) and Chu Hsi reinvigorated Confucianism with new commentary, infused Buddhist ideals, and emphasized a new organization of classic texts that brought about the core doctrine of Neo-Confucianism In 1271, the Mongol leader and fifth Khagan of the Mongol Empire Kublai Khan established the Yuan Dynasty with the last remnant of the Song Dynasty falling to the Yuan in 1279. Before the Mongol invasion of China Chinese dynasties reportedly had approximately 120 million inhabitants; after the conquest was completed in 1279, the 1300 census reported roughly 60 million people.Ping-ti Ho, "An Estimate of the Total Population of Sung-Chin China", in Études Song Series 1, No 1, (1970) pp. 33–53. A peasant named Zhu Yuanzhang overthrew the Mongols in 1368 and founded the Ming Dynasty "http://encarta.msn.com/encyclopedia_761580643/ming_dynasty.html Ming Dynasty]". Microsoft Encarta Online Encyclopedia 2009. http://www.webcitation.org/5kwQtyH2M Archived] 2009-10-31. Ming Dynasty thinkers such as Wang Yangming would further critique and expand Neo-Confucianism with ideas of individualism and innate morality that would have tremendous impact on later Japanese thought. Joseon Dynasty also became a nominal vassal state of Ming China and adopted much of its Neo-Confucian bureaucratic structure. Under the Ming Dynasty, China had another golden age, with one of the strongest navies in the world, a rich and prosperous economy and a flourishing of the arts and culture. It was during this period that Zheng He led explorations throughout the world, possibly reaching America. During the early Ming Dynasty Chinas capital was moved from Nanjing to Beijing In 1644 Beijing was sacked by a coalition of rebel forces led by Li Zicheng a minor Ming official turned leader of the peasant revolt. The last Ming Emperor Chongzhen committed suicide when the city fell. The Manchu Qing Dynasty then allied with Ming Dynasty general Wu Sangui and overthrew Lis short-lived Shun Dynasty and subsequently seized control of Beijing, which became the new capital of the Qing dynasty. File:角樓.JPG at night; the palace was the residence for the imperial family from the reign of the Yongle Emperor of the Ming Dynasty in the 15th century until the fall of the Qing Dynasty in 1912.]] The Qing Dynasty, which lasted until 1912, was the last dynasty in China. In the 19th century the Qing Dynasty adopted a defensive posture towards European imperialism even though it engaged in Imperialism in Asia expansion into Central Asia. At this time China awoke to the significance of the rest of the world, the West in particular. As China opened up to foreign trade and missionary activity, opium produced by British India was forced onto Qing China. Two Opium War with Britain weakened the Emperors control. European imperialism proved to be disastrous for China:File:Celestialempireclipper.jpg [[Celestial Empire (clipper)|Celestial Empire]]]]lt;blockquote>The Arrow War (1856–1860) [2nd Opium War] saw another disastrous defeat for China. The subsequent passing of the humiliating Treaty of Tianjin in 1856 and the Beijing Conventions of 1860 opened up more of the country to foreign penetrations and more ports for their vessels. Hong Kong was ceded over to the British. Thus, the "unequal treaties system" was established. Heavy indemnities had to be paid by China, and more territory and control were taken over by the foreigners.lt;ref>Busky, Donald F. (2002). "Communism in History and Theory. Greenwood Publishing Group, p.2. http://books.google.com/books?idQ6b0j1VINWgC&printsecfrontcover&sourcegbs_navlinks_s#vonepage&q&ffalse The weakening of the Qing regime, and the apparent humiliation of the unequal treaties in the eyes of the Chinese people had several consequences. One consequence was the Taiping Rebellion which lasted from 1851 to 1862. It was led by Hong Xiuquan who was partly influenced by an idiosyncratic interpretation of Christianity. Hong believed himself to be the son of God and the younger brother of Jesus. Although the Qing forces were eventually victorious, the civil war was one of the bloodiest in human history, costing at least 20 million lives (more than the total number of fatalities in the First World War , with some estimates of up to two hundred million. Other costly rebellions followed the Taiping Rebellion, such as the Punti-Hakka Clan Wars (1855–67), Nien Rebellion (1851–1868), Dungan revolt (1862–77), Panthay Rebellion (1856–1873) and the Miao Rebellion (1854–73).Jenks, R.D. Insurgency and Social Disorder in Guizhou: The Miao ‘Rebellion’, 1854–1873. Honolulu: University of Hawaii Press. 1994.Cf. William J. Peterson, The Cambridge History of China Volume 9(Cambridge University Press, 2002) These rebellions resulted in an estimated loss of several million lives each and led to disastrous results for the economy and the countryside.Damsan Harper, Steve Fallon, Katja Gaskell, Julie Grundvig, Carolyn Heller, Thomas Huhti, Bradley Maynew, Christopher Pitts. Lonely Planet China. 9. 2005. ISBN 1-74059-687-0Gernet, Jacques. A History of Chinese Civilization. 2. New York: Cambridge University Press, 1996.Perry, Elizabeth. Rebels and Revolutionaries in Northern China, 1845–1945 (Stanford, CA: Stanford UP, 1980). The flow of British opium hastened the empires decline. In the 19th century, the age of colonialism was at its height and the great Chinese Diaspora began. About 35 million overseas Chinese live in Southeast Asia today.http://www.managementtoday.co.uk/news/648273/ The worlds successful diasporas]. Management Today. April 3, 2007. The famine in 1876–79 claimed between 9 and 13 million lives in northern China.http://www.fao.org/docrep/U8480E/U8480E05.htm Dimensions of need – People and populations at risk]. Food and Agriculture Organization of the United Nations(FAO). From 108 BC to 1911 AD, China experienced 1,828 famines,http://press.princeton.edu/chapters/s8857.html Ó Gráda, C.: Famine: A Short History]. Princeton University Press. or one per year, somewhere in the empire.http://www.jstor.org/pss/3014847 China: Land of Famine]. Journal of the Royal Institute of International Affairs. While China was wracked by continuous war, Meiji Japan succeeded in rapidly modernizing its military and set its sights on Korea and Manchuria. At the request of the Korean emperor, the Chinese government sent troops to aid in suppressing the Tonghak Rebellion in 1894. However, Japan also sent troops to Korea, leading to the First Sino-Japanese War which resulted in Qing Chinas loss of influence in the Korean Peninsula as well as the cession of Taiwan to Japan. Following this series of defeats, Hundred Days' Reform for the empire to become a modern Meiji-style constitutional monarchy was drafted by the Emperor Guangxu in 1898, but was opposed and stopped by the Empress Dowager Cixi who placed Emperor Guangxu under house arrest in a coup détat. Further destruction followed the ill-fated 1900 Boxer Rebellion against westerners in Beijing By the early 20th century, mass civil disorder had begun, and calls for reform and revolution were heard across the country. The 38-year-old Emperor Guangxu died under house arrest on 14 November 1908, suspiciously just a day before Cixis own death. With the throne empty, he was succeeded by Cixis handpicked heir, his two year old nephew Puyi who became the Xuantong Emperor. Guangxus consort, who became the Empress Dowager Longyu In another coup detat, Yuan Shikai overthrew the last Qing emperor, and forced empress Dowager Longyu to sign the abdication decree as regent in 1912, ending two thousand years of imperial rule in China. She died, childless, in 1913.

Republic of China (1912–49)

File:Whampoa3.jpg and Chiang Kai-shek at the founding of the Whampoa Military Academy Flags of the Republic of China and the Nationalist Party shown.]] Image:LA2-NSRW-1-0148.jpg On 1 January 1912, the Republic of China was established, heralding the end of the Qing Dynasty Sun Yat-sen of the Kuomintang (the KMT or Nationalist Party) was proclaimed provisional president of the republic. However, the presidency was later given to Yuan Shikai a former Qing general, who had ensured the defection of the entire Beiyang Army from the Qing Empire to the revolution. In 1915, Yuan proclaimed himself Emperor of China but was forced to abdicate and return the Sovereign state to a republic when he realized it was an unpopular move, not only with the population but also with his own Beiyang Army and its commanders. After Yuan Shikais death in 1916, China was politically fragmented, with an internationally recognized but virtually powerless national government seated in Peking (Beijing). Warlords in various regions exercised actual control over their respective territories. In the late 1920s, the Kuomintang under Chiang Kai-shek was able to reunify the country under its own control, moving the nations capital to Nanking (Nanjing) and implementing "political tutelage", an intermediate stage of political development outlined in Sun Yat-sens program for transforming China into a modern, democratic state. Effectively, political tutelage meant one-party rule by the Kuomintang. The Sino-Japanese War (1937-1945) (part of World War II forced an uneasy alliance between the Kuomintang and the Chinese Communist Party as well as causing around 20 million Chinese civilian deaths.http://www.bbc.co.uk/history/worldwars/wwtwo/nuclear_01.shtml "Nuclear Power: The End of the War Against Japan"]. BBC — History. With the surrender of Japan in 1945, China emerged victorious but financially drained. The continued distrust between the Nationalists and the Communists led to the resumption of the Chinese Civil War In 1947, constitutional rule was established, but because of the ongoing Civil War many provisions of the ROC constitution were never implemented in mainland China.

Post Civil War (1949–present)

After its victory in the Chinese Civil War the Communist Party of China (CCP) led by Mao Zedong gained control of most of Mainland China. On 1 October 1949, they established the Peoples Republic of China as a Socialist State headed by a "Democratic Dictatorship" with the CCP as the only legal political party, thus, laying claim as the successor state of the ROC. The central government of the Chinese Nationalist Party led by Chiang Kai-shek retreated to the island of Taiwan that it had administered at the end of World War II, and moved the ROC government there. Major armed hostilities ceased in 1950 but no peace treaty has been signed. An estimated 36 million died during the Great Chinese Famine of 1958–61.http://en.chinaelections.org/newsinfo.asp?newsid18328 "A hunger for the truth: A new book, banned on the mainland, is becoming the definitive account of the Great Famine."]. Chinaelections.org. July 7, 2008.http://www.telegraph.co.uk/comment/personal-view/3561510/A-tombstone-on-Chinas-history.html A tombstone on Chinas history]. Anne Applebaum Telegraph. August 17, 2008. Beginning in the late 1970s, the Republic of China began the implementation of full, multi-party, representative democracy in the territories still under its control (Taiwan and a number of smaller islands including Kinmen and Matsu Islands . Today, the ROC has active political participation by all sectors of society. The main cleavage in ROC politics is the issue of eventual political unification with the Chinese mainland vs. formal independence of Taiwan. After the Chinese Civil War, mainland China underwent a series of disruptive socioeconomic movements starting in the late 1950s with the Great Leap Forward and continuing in the 1960s with the Cultural Revolution The Great Leap Forward resulted in an estimated 30 to 36 million deaths."http://www.bmj.com/cgi/content/extract/319/7225/1619 Chinas great famine: 40 years later]". [[British Medical Journal]]1999;319:1619-1621 (18 December)http://en.chinaelections.org/newsinfo.asp?newsid18328 A hunger for truth: a new book banned on the mainland, is becoming the definitive account of the Great Famine] With the death of its first generation Communist Party leaders such as Mao Zedong and Zhou Enlai the PRC began implementing a series of political and economic reforms advocated by Deng Xiaoping that eventually formed the foundation for mainland Chinas rapid economic development starting in the 1990s. Post-1978 reforms in mainland China have led to some relaxation of control over many areas of society. However, the PRC government still has almost absolute control over politics, and it continually seeks to eradicate what it perceives as threats to the social, political and economic stability of the country. Examples include the fight against terrorism jailing of dissident and journalists custody regulation of the press, regulation of religion, and suppression of independence/secessionist movements. In 1989, the Tiananmen Square protests of 1989 at Tiananmen Square were violently put to an end by the Chinese military after 15 days of martial law. In 1997, Hong Kong was ceded to the PRC by the United Kingdom, and in 1999, Macau was handed over by Portugal Since 1949, mainland China is administered by the People's Republic of China a one-party state under the leadership of the Chinese Communist Party—while the island of Taiwan and surrounding islands are administered by the Republic of China a democratic multi-party state. After the founding of the Peoples Republic in 1949, both states claimed to be the sole legitimate ruler of all of China. After the Kuomintang retreat to Taiwan in 1949, the Republic of China had maintained official diplomatic relations with most states around the world, but by the 1970s, a shift had occurred in international diplomatic circles and the People's Republic of China gained the upper hand in international diplomatic relations and recognition count. In 1971, under United Nations General Assembly Resolution 2758 the representatives of Chiang Kai-shek to the United Nations were expelled from the intergovernmental organization. With the expulsion of the representatives, and effectively the Republic of China the representatives of the People's Republic of China were invited to assume Chinas seat on the United Nations Security Council the United Nations General Assembly and other United Nations councils and agencies. Later attempts by the Republic of China to rejoin the UN have either been blocked by the People's Republic of China which has veto power on the United Nations Security Council or rejected by the United Nations Secretariat or a United Nations General Assembly committee responsible for the General Assemblys agenda.lt;/ref> Since the relocation of its capital to Taiwan, the Republic of China has not formally renounced its claim to authority over all of China, nor has it changed its official maps, which include the Mainland China and Mongolia Following the introduction of full democracy, and the electoral victory of the Democratic Progressive Party s Chen Shui-bian in the presidential elections, the ROC had adopted a policy of separating the states identity from "China", while moving towards identifying the state as "Taiwan". However, the ROC has not made any formal moves to change the name, flag, or national anthem of the state to reflect a Taiwanese identity due to the lack of consensus within Taiwan, pressure from the United States and the fear of invasion or military action from the Peoples Republic of China against the island. The Republic of China during the DPP years did not actively pursue its claims on mainland China or Mongolia. However, after having been elected as president, KMTs Ma Ying-jeou asserted that, constitutionally, mainland China is part of the Republic of China.lt;/ref> The Peoples Republic of China claims to have succeeded the Republic of China as the sole legitimate governing authority of all of China, which, from the official viewpoint of the Peoples Republic of China, includes the island of Taiwan Over the last 50 years, both the Republic of China and the Peoples Republic of China have used diplomatic and economic means to compete for recognition in the international arena. Because most international, intergovernmental organizations observe the One-China policy of the Peoples Republic of China, the PRC has been able to pressure organizations, such as the World Health Organization and the International Olympic Committee to refuse to officially recognize the Republic of China. Due to the One-China policy, states around the world are pressured to refuse, or to cut off diplomatic relations with the Republic of China. As a result, Foreign relations of the Republic of China#List of countries with diplomatic relations with the ROC currently maintain official diplomatic relations with the Republic of China, while the vast majority of U.N. member states maintain official diplomatic relations with the Peoples Republic of China.

Territory and environment

Historical political divisions

Image:Territories of Dynasties in China.gif Top-level political divisions of China have altered as administrations changed. Top levels included circuit (political division) and province of China Below that, there have been prefecture of China subprefecture , Department (subnational entity) commanderies district of China and county of China Recent divisions also include prefecture-level cities county-level cities town of China and township of China Most Chinese dynasties were based in the historical heartlands of China, known as China proper Various dynasties also expansionism into peripheral territories like Inner Mongolia Manchuria Xinjiang and Tibet The Manchu established Qing Dynasty and its successors, the ROC and the PRC, incorporated these territories into the Chinese empire.

Geography and climate

China ranges from mostly plateaus and mountains in the west to lower lands in the east. Principal rivers flow from west to east, including the Yangtze River (central), the Huang He (Yellow river, north-central), and the Amur River (northeast), and sometimes toward the south (including the Pearl River (China) Mekong River and Brahmaputra , with most Chinese rivers emptying into the Pacific Ocean In the east, along the shores of the Yellow Sea and the East China Sea there are extensive and densely populated alluvial plains. On the edges of the Inner Mongolian plateau in the north, grasslands can be seen. Southern China is dominated by hills and low mountain ranges. In the central-east are the river delta of Chinas two major rivers, the Huang He and Yangtze River Most of Chinas arable lands lie along these rivers, and they were the centers of Chinas major ancient civilizations. Other major rivers include the Pearl River (China) Mekong Brahmaputra and Amur River Yunnan Province is considered a part of the Greater Mekong Subregion, which also includes Myanmar, Laos, Thailand, Cambodia, and Vietnam.http://www.adb.org/Documents/Books/GMS_Atlas/default.asp Greater Mekong Subregion Atlas of the Environment] published by http://www.adb.org/default.asp Asian Development Bank] Image:ChinaGeography.png In the west, the north has a great alluvial plain, and the south has a vast calcareous tableland traversed by hill ranges of moderate elevation, and the Himalaya , containing Earths highest point, Mount Everest The northwest also has high plateaus with more arid desert landscapes such as the Takla-Makan and the Gobi Desert which has been expanding. During many dynasties, the southwestern border of China has been the high mountains and deep valleys of Yunnan which separate modern China from Burma Laos and Vietnam The Paleozoic formations of China, excepting only the upper part of the Carboniferous system, are marine, while the Mesozoic and Tertiary deposits are estuarine and freshwater, or else of terrestrial origin. Groups of volcanic cones occur in the Great Plain of north China. In the Liaodong and Shandong Peninsulas, there are basalt c plateaus. The climate of China varies greatly. The northern zone (containing Beijing) has summer daytime temperatures of more than 30 degrees Celsius and winters of Arctic severity. The central zone (containing Shanghai has a temperate continental climate with very hot summers and cold winters. The southern zone (containing Guangzhou has a subtropical climate with very hot summers and mild winters. Due to a prolonged drought and poor agricultural practices, dust storms have become usual in the spring in China.http://news.bbc.co.uk/1/hi/world/asia-pacific/4915690.stm "Beijing hit by eighth sandstorm"]. BBC news. Retrieved 17 April 2006. Dust has blown to southern Mainland China and Taiwan, and has reached the West Coast of the United States. Water, erosion, and pollution control have become important issues in Chinas relations with other countries.

Economy

Culture

Image:Wang-yang-ming.jpg a highly influential Neo-Confucian ]] File:Yang Gui-Fei.jpg ([[Beijing Opera]] performance in Beijing of the historical character Yang Guifei ]] Confucianism was the official philosophy throughout most of Imperial era of Chinese history s history, and mastery of Confucian texts was the primary criterion for Imperial examination Chinas traditional values were derived from various versions of Confucianism A number of more authoritarianism strains of thought have also been influential, such as Legalism (philosophy) There was often conflict between the philosophies, e.g. the Song Dynasty Neo-Confucianism believed Legalism (philosophy) departed from the original spirit of Confucianism. Examinations and a meritocracy remain greatly valued in China today. In recent years, a number of New Confucianism (not to be confused with Neo-Confucianism) have advocated that democratic ideals and human rights are quite compatible with traditional Confucian "Asian values".Bary, Theodore de. Columbia University. With the rise of European economic and military power beginning in the mid-19th century, non-Chinese systems of social and political organization gained adherents in China. Some of these would-be reformers totally rejected Chinas cultural legacy, while others sought to combine the strengths of Chinese and European cultures. In essence, the history of 20th-century China is one of experimentation with new systems of social, political, and economic organization that would allow for the reintegration of the nation in the wake of dynastic collapse.

Arts, scholarship, and literature

See also|Chinese art|Chinese literature|Chinese painting|Chinese paper art|Chinese calligraphy|Chinese poetry|Cinema of China|Music of China}} Image:mifu01.jpg by Mi Fu Song Dynasty ca. 1100 CE]] Image:Bamboo book - binding - UCR.jpg , a 20th century reprint of a Qianlong Emperor imperial edition. ]] Chinese character have had many variants and styles throughout Chinese history. Tens of thousands of ancient written documents are still extant, from oracle bones to Qing edicts. This literary emphasis affected the general perception of cultural refinement in China, e.g. the view that Chinese calligraphy was a higher art form than painting or drama. Manuscripts of the Classics and religious texts (mainly Confucian Taoist and Buddhist were handwritten by ink brush Calligraphy later became commercialized, and works by famous artists became prized possessions. Chinese literature has a long past; the earliest classic work in Chinese, the [[I Ching]]or "Book of Changes" dates to around 1000 BC. A flourishing of philosophy during the Warring States Period produced such noteworthy works as Confuciuss [[Analects]]and Laozi s [[Tao Te Ching]] (See also: the Chinese classics ) Dynastic histories were often written, beginning with Sima Qian s seminal [[Records of the Historian]] which was written from 109 BC to 91 BC. The Tang Dynasty witnessed a Chinese poetry flowering, while the Four Great Classical Novels of Chinese literature were written during the Ming and Qing Dynasties. Printmaking in the form of movable type was developed during the Song Dynasty Academies of scholars sponsored by the empire were formed to comment on the classics in both printed and handwritten form. Royalty frequently participated in these discussions as well. The Song Dynasty was also a period of great scientific literature, and saw the creation of works such as Su Song s Xin Yixiang Fayaoand Shen Kuo s [[Dream Pool Essays]] There were also enormous works of historiography and large encyclopedias, such as Sima Guang s [[Zizhi Tongjian]]of 1084 AD or the [[Four Great Books of Song]]fully compiled and edited by the 11th century. For centuries, religious and social advancement in China could be achieved through high performance on the imperial examination . This led to the creation of a meritocracy although success was available only to males who could afford test preparation. Imperial examinations required applicants to write essays and demonstrate mastery of the Confucian classics. Those who passed the highest level of the exam became elite scholar-officials known as jinshi,a highly esteemed socio-economic position. Chinese philosophers, writers and poets were highly respected and played key roles in preserving and promoting the culture of the empire. Some classical scholars, however, were noted for their daring depictions of the lives of the common people, often to the displeasure of authorities.The Chinese invented numerous musical instrument , such as the Guzheng (zither with movable bridges), guqin (bridgeless zither), sheng (instrument) lt;!--Note: the sheng was most likely an adapted instrument; adapted from non-Han peoples of mainland Southeast Asia (although the Chinese version of the instruments differs from the Southeast Asian ones). As such it should be listed as an "adapted"/"adopted"--> (free reed mouth organ), and xiao (flute) (vertical flute) and adopted and developed others such the erhu (alto fiddle or bowed lute) and pipa (pear-shaped plucked lute), many of which later spread throughout East Asia and Southeast Asia particularly to Japan, Korea, and Vietnam.

Demography

Image:china ethnolinguistic 83.jpg and the Republic of China ] Hundreds of ethnic group have existed in China throughout its history. The largest ethnic group in China by far is the Han Chinese This group, however, is internally diverse and can be further divided into smaller ethnic groups that share similar traits. Over the last three millennia, many previously distinct ethnic groups in China have been Sinicization into a Han identity, which over time dramatically expanded the size of the Han population. However, these assimilations were usually incomplete, and vestiges of indigenous language and culture still often remain in various regions of China. Because of this, many within the Han identity have maintained distinct linguistic and cultural traditions while still identifying as Han. Several ethnicities have also dramatically shaped Han culture, e.g. the Manchurian clothing called the qipao became the new "Chinese" fashion after the 17th century, replacing earlier Han styles of clothing such as the Hanfu The modern term Chinese nation (Zhonghua Minzu is now used to describe a notion of a Chinese nationality that transcends ethnic divisions.

Languages

Most languages in China belong to the Sino-Tibetan language family, spoken by 29 ethnicities. There are also several major Varieties of Chinese within the Chinese language itself. The most spoken varieties are Mandarin Chinese (spoken by over 70% of the population), Wu Chinese Yue Chinese (Cantonese), Min Chinese Xiang Chinese Gan Chinese and Hakka Chinese Non-Sinitic languages spoken widely by ethnic minorities include Zhuang language (Thai), Mongolian language Tibetan language Uyghur language (Turkic), Hmong language and Korean language http://english.gov.cn/2005-08/16/content_23691.htm Languages]. 2005. GOV.cn. URL accessed 3 May 2006.lt;/ref> Classical Chinese was the written standard in China for thousands of years, and allowed for written communication between speakers of various unintelligible languages and dialects in China. Vernacular Chinese or baihuais the written standard based on the Mandarin dialect first popularized in Ming dynasty novels and was adopted (with significant modifications) during the early 20th century as the national vernacular. Classical Chinese is still part of the high school curriculum and is thus intelligible to some degree to many Chinese.

Religion

File:天-bronze.svg bronze script character for tian(天), "Sky" or "Heaven."]] The "official" orthodox faith system held by most dynasties of China since at least the Shang Dynasty (1766 BC) until the overthrow of the last dynasty (1911 AD) centered on the worship of [[Shangdi]]("Supreme God") or "Tian as an omnipotent force.Homer H. Dubs, "Theism and Naturalism in Ancient Chinese Philosophy," Philosophy of East and West Vol. 9, No. 3/4, 1959 This faith system pre-dated the development of Confucianism and Taoism and the introduction of Buddhism Islam and Christianity It has features of monotheism in that Heaven is seen as an omnipotent entity, endowed with personality but no corporeal form. From the writings of Confucius, we find that Confucius himself believed that Heaven cannot be deceived, Heaven guides peoples lives and maintains a personal relationship with them, and that Heaven gives tasks for people to fulfill to teach them righteousness (yi 義). However, this faith system was not truly monotheistic since other lesser gods and spirits, which varied with locality, were also worshiped along with Shangdi Still, variants such as Mohism approached high monotheism, teaching that the function of lesser gods and ancestral spirits is merely to carry out the will of Shangdi which included observing "universal love" (jianai, 兼爱) and shunning fatalism Worship of Shangdiand Heaven in ancient China includes the erection of shrines, the last and greatest being the Temple of Heaven in Beijing, and the offering of prayers. The ruler of China in every Chinese dynasty would perform annual sacrificial rituals to Heaven, usually by slaughtering a bull as sacrifice. Although its popularity gradually diminished after the advent of Taoism and Buddhism, among other religions, its concepts remained in use throughout the pre-modern period and have been incorporated in later religions in China, including terminology used in Chinese Christianity. File:Jade Buddha Temple Monk.JPG Shanghai China.]] Taoism is an indigenous religion of China and its beginnings are traditionally traced to the composition of Lao Zi s [[Tao Te Ching]](The Book of Tao and Its Virtues or to seminal works by Zhang Daoling The philosophy of Taoism is centered on "Dao ; an understanding of which can be likened to recognizing the true nature of the universe. Taoism in its unorganized form is also considered a folk religion of China. More secular derivatives of Taoist ideas include Feng Shui Sun Tzus [[The Art of War|Art of War]] and acupuncture Image:Mahayanabuddha.jpg (618–907) sculpture of the Gautama Buddha seated in meditation ]] Image:Buddha statues in a temple on Jejudo.jpg Buddhism in China was first introduced from India and Central Asia during the Han dynasty and became very popular among Chinese of all walks of life, embraced particularly by commoners, and sponsored by emperors in certain dynasties. Mahayana (Dacheng 大乘) is the predominant form of Buddhism practiced in China, where it was largely sinification and later exported to Korea, Japan and Vietnam. Some subsets of Mahayana popular in China include Pure Land (Amidism and Zen Buddhism is the largest organized faith in China and the country has the most Buddhist adherents in the world. Many Chinese, however, identify themselves as both Taoist and Buddhist at the same time. Ancestor worship is a major religious theme shared among all Chinese religions. Traditional Chinese culture, Taoism, Confucianism, and Chinese Buddhism all value filial piety or a love and respect for ones parents and ancestors, as one of the most important virtues. Chinese people generally offer prayers and food for their ancestors, light incense and candles, and burn offerings of Joss paper These activities are typically conducted at the site of ancestral graves or tombs, at an ancestral temple, or at a household shrine. File:Huaisheng Mosque Dec 2007.jpg is one of the oldest Mosques in the world, built by Muhammad s uncle, Sa`d ibn Abi Waqqas ] Islam in China dates to a mission in 651 18 years after Muhammad s death. Muslims came to China for trade, dominating the import/export industry during the Song Dynasty lt;/ref>lt;/ref> They became influential in government circles, including Zheng He Lan Yu (general) and Yeheidie'erding who designed the Yuan Dynastys capital, Khanbaliq Nanjing became an important center of Islamic study.lt;/ref> The Qing Dynasty waged war and Genocides in history against Muslims in the Dungan revolt and Panthay rebellion Levene, Mark. Genocide in the Age of the Nation-State. I.B.Tauris, 2005. ISBN 1845110579, page 288Giersch, Charles Patterson. Asian Borderlands: The Transformation of Qing Chinas Yunnan Frontier. Harvard University Press, 2006. ISBN 1845110579, page 219Dillon, Michael. http://www.hsais.org/2essay0405_4.htm China’s Muslim Hui Community]. Curzon, 1999. ISBN 0700710264, page xix Judaism in China dates to as early as the 7th or 8th century Common Era In the first half of the 20th century, many Jews arrived in Shanghai and Hong Kong during those cities periods of economic expansion, seeking refuge from the Holocaust Shanghai was notable for its volume of Jewish refugees, as it was the only port in the world to accept them without an entry visa. Christianity in China has developed since at least the 7th century AD with the introduction of the Assyrian Church of the East Christianity began to make significant inroads in China after the 16th century through Jesuit and later Protestant missionaries The Taiping Rebellion was influenced to some degree by Christian teachings, and the Boxer Rebellion was in part a reaction against Christianity in China.

Sports and recreation

Image:Dragon boat racing.jpg a popular traditional Chinese sport.]] :For sports in the Peoples Republic of China, see [[Sport in the People Republic of China]], Sports in Hong Kong and Sports in Macau :or sports in the Republic of China, see Sports in Taiwan Many historians believe that [[association football]] originated in China, where a form of the sport may have appeared around 1000 AD.[http://athleticscholarships.net/history-of-soccer.htm Origins of the Great Game]. 2000. Athleticscholarships.net. Retrieved 23 April 2006. Other popular sports include [[Chinese martial arts|martial arts]], table tennis, badminton, and more recently, golf. Basketball is now popular among young people in urban centers. There are also many traditional sports. Chinese [[dragon boat racing]] occurs during the [[Duan Wu festival]]. In [[Inner Mongolia]], Mongolian-style wrestling and horse racing are popular. In [[Tibet]], archery and equestrian sports are part of traditional festivals.Qinfa, Ye. [http://chineseculture.about.com/library/weekly/aa032301a.htm Sports History of China]. About.com. Retrieved 21 April 2006. Physical fitness is highly regarded. It is common for the elderly to practice [[Tai Chi Chuan]] and [[qigong]] in parks. Board games such as [[International Chess]], [[Go (board game)|Go]] (Weiqi), and [[Xiangqi]] (Chinese chess) are also common and have organized formal competitions. The capital city of the Peoples Republic of China, Beijing, hosted the [[2008 Olympic Games]], a major international sporting event. ==Science and technology== [[Image:ChineseCrossbow.JPG|thumb|Remains of an ancient Chinese handheld [[crossbow]], 2nd century BC]] {{See|History of science and technology in China|List of Chinese inventions|List of Chinese discoveries}} Among the technological accomplishments of [[ancient China]] were paper (not [[papyrus]]) and [[papermaking]], [[woodblock printing]] and [[movable type]] [[History of typography in East Asia|printing]], the early [[lodestone]] and needle compass, gunpowder, toilet paper, early [[seismometer|seismological]] detectors, matches, [[pound lock]]s, the double-action [[piston pump]], [[blast furnace]] and [[cast iron]], the iron plough, the multi-tube [[seed drill]], the [[suspension bridge]],[http://www.pbs.org/wgbh/nova/lostempires/china/meetsusp.html People have walked across the [[Anlan Bridge] for 1,700 years.] natural gas as fuel, the [[Differential (mechanical device)|differential gear]] for the [[South Pointing Chariot]], the hydraulic-powered [[armillary sphere]], the hydraulic-powered [[trip hammer]], the mechanical [[chain drive]], the mechanical [[Belt (mechanical)|belt drive]], the [[raised-relief map]], the [[propeller]], the [[crossbow]], the cannon, the rocket, the [[multistage rocket]], etc. Chinese [[Astronomy|astronomers]] were among the first to record observations of a [[supernova]]. The work of the astronomer [[Shen Kuo]] (1031–95) alone was most impressive, as he theorized that the sun and moon were spherical, corrected the position of the [[polestar]] with his improved sighting tube, discovered the concept of [[true north]], wrote of planetary motions such as [[retrogradation]], and compared the orbital paths of the planets to points on the shape of a rotating willow leaf. With evidence for them, he also postulated geological theories for the processes of land formation in [[geomorphology]] and climate change in [[paleoclimatology]]. Other important astronomers included [[Gan De]], [[Shi Shen]], [[Zhang Heng]], [[Yi Xing]], [[Zhang Sixun]], [[Su Song]] and [[Guo Shoujing]]. [[Chinese mathematics]] evolved independently of [[Greek mathematics]] and is therefore of great interest in the [[history of mathematics]]. The Chinese were also keen on documenting all of their technological achievements, such as in the Tiangong Kaiwu [[encyclopedia]] written by [[Song Yingxing]] (1587–1666). Chinas science and technology had fallen behind that of Europe by the 17th century. Political, social and cultural reasons have been given for this, although recent historians focus more on economic causes, such as the [[high level equilibrium trap]]. Since the [[People Republic of China|PRC]]s market reforms, China has become better connected to the global economy and is placing greater emphasis on science and technology.

Notes

References

External links

More Information Services
Translate This Article:

Ask Experts Suggestions
Have some queries about this content ? Feel free to participate in Experts Forum and Earn money for points earned.

Read AskE